The Production of the Book of Mormon in Light of a Tibetan Buddhist Parallel

Drawing on observations and suggestions from scholars of Tibetan Buddhism Mormonism, this article compares the production Book Mormon with that class Buddhist scripture known as gter ma (“Treasure,” pronounced “terma”).2 In brief, both are said to have been authored by ancient religious figures, buried anticipation future discovery, discovered visionaries help supernatural beings, “translated” an obscure language into discoverers’ native tongue supernatural, revelatory means.3More specifically, aims use a new lens—a lens, if you will—to explore extend existing theories relationship between gold plates Joseph Smith claimed discover his translation those plates, Mormon. Before continuing, it will be important briefly clarify justify comparison for purpose analyzing these two culturally, geographically, temporally separate phenomena, especially idea analysis one can used shed light other.Whereas comparative methodologies were once common field studies, they become increasingly unpopular since postmodern turn.4 One persistent critiques has logic religion rests unwarranted assumption there is such thing called “religion” compared cross-culturally. Indeed, concept shown modern birthed rise of, hence modeled on, Protestant Christianity.5 As such, when compare “religious phenomena” often imposing anachronistic provincial categories distort which intend illuminate.In critiques, I want clear in using events ideas located history Smith's am not arguing because Buddhists acted thought certain way, must similar based some sort preposterous organic connection.6 Rather, we attempt trace associations Mormon, considering how other people radically different times places described structurally serve highlight challenge assumptions previously taken granted, introduce possibilities would otherwise indiscernible.7Reading interactions alongside comparable tradition—as well approached events—highlights challenges prevailing paradigms studies serves novel possibility experienced first draws attention problematic about nature human subjectivity relation material world fueled longstanding debates posit either authentic historical document or fraud. Moreover, although agree much work Karl Sandberg, Ann Taves, Sonia Hazard, whose transcends either/or binary showing could functioned something than inert object subject linguistic translation, take issue their return subjective imagination creativity (if primary) driving source “translation.”In tradition, where scroll acts agent forth memory particular teaching given master Padmasambhava previous life, “translation” consists primarily ritually orienting oneself its power effective intermediary Padmasambhava's message,8 argue similarly having own “generative potencies” “unpredictable ways.”9 suggest set rituals agentive enabled him act present past voices crying out “from dust.”10 also contend plausible recent concerning term “translation,” later theological innovations, postcolonialist materialist agency.The primary goal idiosyncratic pairing modes scriptural us Smith, way better aligns sources. To do so, begin part 1 outlining functional similarities mas within respective traditions. This portion meant provide fuller context introducing my 2, make broad case comparability traditions generative work. Focusing bulk admittedly leave number relevant questions implications study life legacy unanswered. Nevertheless, conclude discussing study, namely around Mormon's historicity innovations theme materiality, fully developed elsewhere.What particularly interesting note section apocryphal scriptures traditions, gives activities discoverers (gter ston) despite highly distinctive temporal geographical contexts. Specifically, stons translated objects means bridging religiously authoritative address contested authority national identity amid political paradigm shifts. doing posed received preexisting canonical texts expanded traditional boundaries beyond limitations, thereby sacralizing lands contextualizing them larger arc Christian/Buddhist history, authenticating otherworldly prowess authenticity traditions.The tradition seen mix pragmatic treasure burial Indian coalesced unique response canonical, denominational, personal authority, religio-national identity, The emerged what now Nyingma (rnying ma) twelfth century,11 during period denoted historiographers spread Dharma Tibet, juxtaposed earlier Dharma. These periods transmission divided hundred year “period fragmentation” “dark period,” brought central government, thus imperially sponsored monastic Buddhism, dissolved following assassination putatively anti-Buddhist king Lang Darma monk mid-ninth century.12When economic conditions restabilized cultural renaissance revival latter half tenth century,13 extant practices became topic serious concern. Many authorities suspected many, all, tantras14 transmitted Tibet imperial age—denoted Old tantras—were teachings but fabrications. addition, individuals associated old dark-period charged engaging variety disreputable activities, implying had misinterpreted deliberately abused traditionally esoteric operating lineage corrupted heresy.15 only possible solution, seemed, was “send young men India . bring back pure dispensation,” resulting baseline standard defined Indic origin, post-late-tenth century.16Amid importation scripture, schools articulated ecclesial linking current “in face supposed corruption antiquity Lineages.”17 lineages subsequently dubbed (“old”) contrast schools. response, began articulating lineal heritage through masters period—the kings ambassadors who come remembered great bodhisattvas (awakened beings) compassionately introduced seventh eighth centuries CE.18It shifts turn eleventh century fledging mas: heretofore unknown sacred historical, ritual, doctrinal attributed (typically Padmasambhava, discussed below) Tibet's age.19 Thus, distinguish itself over doctrine “continuing revelation” against ostensibly closed canon20 appealing discoveries ancient, across perceived corruption.Although apologists attempted legitimate precedents Mahāyāna sūtras,21 movement transmission—known spoken transmission. By establishing direct link enlightened beings age present, created timeless repository knowledge turned “the original critique decline among ‘old school’ head.”22 Whereas tantras close dark late school representatives teacher student generations upon thus—according apologists—subject corruption, shortened lineage, placing discoverer communication source.23 able claim corrective gaps, errors, misinterpretations canon. hidden being express discovery at precise date, designed “suit mental desires, needs capacities born times.”24 existed dialectic canon, served legitimacy, yet made appear somewhat obsolete comparatively more distant less personalized.Here, worth noting likewise positioned erroneous biblical translations interpretations spiritual darkness, fresh prophetic wisdom uniquely contemporary turbulent times. counterpart, Bible.Joseph propagated early Christian church apostatized soon after death Christ apostles,25 joined marginal challenging cessationist notion canon sealed writing New Testament.26 Yet did couch words, even words God revealed him, Israelite prophets who—unbeknownst rest world—had anciently inhabited portions American continent. With foresight, maintained ultimately record (the plates) preserved “plain most precious parts gospel,” away Bible,27 speak latter-day followers Christ.28 discovering translating access uncorrupted personalized Bible.Yet just challenged Bible's inerrancy, universality, soteriological sufficiency, function signal impending fulfillment eschatological restorationist prophecies, defended reference passages interpreted prophesying emergence.29 saw emergence Testament prophecies signaled restoration primitive apostasy, literal Israel, God's kingdom Christ's millennial reign.30 mas, meaning legitimacy while simultaneously rivaling unparalleled authority.In addition role legitimating careers discoverers, history. Gyatso analyzed depth,31 ston's claiming prophesied propagation ma—itself complicated semiotic process consisting locating interpreting external signs below—is “powerfully self-legitimating.” “accrue[s] person exalted qualities text holy origins,”32 her becomes authenticated detractors recourse “competing structure culturally powerful memories dynastic period.”33 competing consisted “Indian provenance [had become] sine qua non authority,”34 constraints “an active partner cosmos. Instead disheveled stepchild civilization, [gter ma] snowy land ground Buddha's activity.”35Likewise, origin story—both miraculous authors event—served route inspired actions individual—Joseph Smith. seer very existence incipience long-awaited “restitution all things” book Acts,36 went rural visionary newly prophet,37 culmination dealings humankind. internment pivotal text—with accompanying mythology worship visit resurrected Americas—Smith (or restored) teleology plan always included, culminate with, chosen peoples continent.This exhaustive list played nor commonalities two. Much written, example, mechanism give doctrinal, guise, validated question.38 Nor say functionality changed time, surely has; concerns mentioned here rather constant.39 Yet, brief indicates were—in ways—engaged functionally projects.More highlights artifacts operate ways. artifact enables divide. dramatic related individual's relationships forges agents. And precisely applying theoretical opens up do—rather merely it—to tug seams undergirding theories.A reading sheer diversity. institutionally recognized Mormonism begins ends Smith,40 generated hundreds century.41 origins holds together ongoing points debate.42 My heavily Do Drubchen III's (1865–1926) essay “Wonder Ocean, Explanation Treasure Tradition,” elaborated Tulku Thondup Hidden Teachings Tibet. supplement accounts drawn (but exclusively) lives Jigme Lingpa (1730–1798) Nyangrel Nyima Ozer (1124–1192), broader theorizations materials rdzas) exert ritual contexts Sokdokpa (1552–1624).Thus, neither comprehensive governed emphasis time school. sources cited below unilaterally congruent. spatial restraints, focus mostly accessibility still understudied tradition. focusing few thereto subjects in-depth analyses religion—Janet Gyatso, Daniel Hirshberg, James Gentry, respectively—this opportunity reflect delt peculiar studies.I explanation relatively Around century, traced eighth-century tantric Padmasambhava.43 Recent scholarship suggests he came present-day Pakistan request King Trisong Detsen subdue local deities obstructing efforts build monastery, Samye monastery. Soon arrival, earliest expelled exceptional powers dangerous rival; although, suggested removal controversial, transgressive promoted.44 counternarrative arose characteristic representation foundational discovery: pacifying opposing indigenous forces enlisting protection traveled throughout many students burying inscribed relics soil recovery.45 conjunction narrative, status “second Buddha” protagonist conversion graciously hid account perception practitioners face.46The content scripturally preached them, codifier author. Like conventional, transmissions nonverbally buddha (“transmission realized”), then semiotically patriarchs symbols holders”), lastly conventional discourse ears people”), appears.47 Within last step, posits three-step process. First, ceremony “benedictory initiation,” appointed specific reveal lifetimes; second, revelation; third, dākinīs protectors48 protect find them. After, consort, Yeshey Tsogyal, recorded “yellow scrolls.” Finally, concealed, container rdzas).49The claims each individual discoverer, popular debate inter- intra-denominational polemics, academic scholarship.50 entire enterprise blatant fraud,51 whole considerably polarized nuanced Mormon.52 There myriad potential reasons difference;53 yet, our purposes tendency refrain making plausibility, authenticity, discoverer's claims. (especially Janet Thondup) critically phenomenology revelation discoveries, shedding complex interplay material, human, superhuman forces, reincarnation, no-self, prophecy, interdependent origination, semiotics.In rooted “artifactual reality” “nebulous stuff visions” automatically scholarly realm interiority toward empiricism objectivity.”54 argued scholar Terryl Givens: Dream visions may mind beholder, facile psychologizing. They were, angel's nearby hillside, Joseph's psyche unconscious, chronicle hemisphere, heavenly city come. experiences prophet thrust irretrievably public sphere, no longer private interpretation alone. It fact, intrusion message concrete, empirical, dramatically alters terms engage phenomenon.55In accordance logic, centered inter/intratextual criticism verify book's internal, “Book wars”—debates archaisms56 vs. anachronisms,57 evidence authorial consistent internal claims,58 nineteenth-century interpolations interwoven editor.59 information, turn, sense doing—whether restoring long-lost project deceptively trying accrue playing sensibilities time.60 asking facilitated reveals significance, focused textual significance. That is, conflated creating former verified latter. bracketed question origins, influenced movement, biographers opinion basis metaphysical plausibility and/or evidence, proceed depict prophet61 conscious delusional) deceiver.62 This, sharply along emic/etic lines.63Although need discard actually linguistically text, up, demonstrates necessitated Returning translated, practice instigator facilitator revelation. core transcribed cycle—the oeuvre authorially Padmasambhava—is inscriptions oral (described above step transmission). At moment transmission, goes stream “luminous natural awareness minds disciples,” makes impermeable karmic protectors’ various lifetimes.64 According Thondup, embedding recesses revealer's mind, “Mind-mandate Transmission,” defining feature ma.65In contains couple characters phrase thematically itself. encoded secret script written language,66 hindering attempts translation. scroll's preserve itself, awaken taught lifetime. contents scribe), Padmasambhava. Some receive Mind-mandate Transmission accessing without support, ma.67 mechanics earth ma, mode best genre exists accentuate mnemonic character production, carries parallels activities.68Although elaborate here, allow me consider go